Appeasement, as a diplomatic policy, involved making certain concessions to authoritarian powers to circumvent conflict. It was a primary strategy employed by Britain and France in their interactions with Nazi Germany throughout the 1930s. The concept of appeasement was rooted in the tragic aftermath of World War I, and a strong will to prevent another war.
The leaders of Britain and France reasoned that by acceding to Hitler's demands, they could satisfy his territorial cravings and thus maintain peace in Europe. Recognizing the Western powers' reluctance to engage in conflict, he pushed his demands progressively, using the policy almost as a shield against immediate military retaliation.
There was also an undercurrent of belief among some political circles that the Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, had been unduly harsh on Germany. So, they perceived Hitler’s early demands as justifiable corrections of these past wrongs, further motivating their policy of appeasement. The objective was to integrate a resurgent Germany into the community of nations as a responsible partner, rather than pushing it into a corner where it might lash out violently. Hitler utilized appeasement to his advantage by steadily capturing lands across Europe. His first bold move was the militarization of the Rhineland in 1936, a blatant violation of the Treaty of Versailles. The Rhineland is territory that today is in Western Germany along the Rhine River. The territory borders countries like Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands. Unopposed, Hitler continued his expansion with the annexation of Austria during the Anschluss of 1938, followed by the annexation of Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia in the same year. All these actions were carried out with nominal resistance due to the policy of appeasement.
In 1938, the Munich Agreement became a defining example of appeasement's failings. With the intention of maintaining peace, Britain and France yielded to Hitler's demands, sanctioning the annexation of Sudetenland. They operated under the assurance that this would be Hitler's final territorial expansion in Europe. British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain hailed this compromise as a triumph for peace.
However, Chamberlain's optimism was short-lived. Far from being satisfied with the Sudetenland, he proceeded to seize the rest of Czechoslovakia just months later. Germany invaded Poland on Sept. 1, 1939. This was an area both Great Britain & France had promised to protect and days later both Great Britain & France declared war on Germany. The war they had hoped to avoid had come.
The early weeks and months of WWII is often referred to as the Phoney War – not much action for GB & France for the first 8 months of their involvement. Germany conducted the blitz in Poland and GB & France were mobilizing for war. The biggest concern was the Maginot line. The Maginot line was a series of concrete fortifications along the eastern border of France. Germany surprised them and attacked through the northern forest. Poland fell to German control in 5 weeks. By June of 1940, Germany had taken control of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg and France.
The French government fled Paris and by the end of June of 1940, France surrendered. France was divided into parts – Northern France which was under Nazi control and Vichy or Free France. Charles de Gaulle promised to continue to fight and free all of France from German control.
Germany then set its sights on Great Britain. After the fall of France, Hitler ordered the preparation for a plan known as Operation Sea Lion. This was the name for the plan for an amphibious invasion of Great Britain. The original plan was to have this invasion take place during the Battle of Britain. Hitler hoped to achieve both air and naval superiority over the English Channel. Neither of those two things ever happened. Hitler hoped Great Britain would agree to a Peace compromise as Germany wasn’t prepared for a full scale invasion. From July – August 1940, Germany attacked British ports and convoys. In Sept of 1940, the Germans accidentally dropped bombs on London and civilian areas. The British air force retaliated with hitting targets in Berlin. This move infuriated Hitler that he commanded London and other major cities to be bombed repeatedly. The city of London was attacked for 57 consecutive nights. These night raids became known as The Blitz. The bombing of London, while incredibly difficult on the civilian population, allowed the British military to regroup and it meant that military bases weren’t the main targets. During the blitz 40,000 civilians were killed and 2 million homes were damaged or destroyed. Many London residents used the underground train stations as shelters. Some nights there would be 150,000 people sleeping in the underground. The King & Queen of Great Britain remained in London. Hitler even referred to Queen Elizabeth as the most dangerous woman in Britain due to her determination to remain in the capital. The King and Queen would often tour bombed neighborhoods and when Buckingham Palace was bombed she simply said “Now I can look people in the East End of London in the eye”.
Italy and Germany invade the Balkans – Albania, Yugoslavia & Greece. First, Italy invaded Greece. When they demanded that the Greek surrender, the leader of Greece at the time responded with a single word, Oxi which is no in Greek. Oxi day is still celebrated in Greece and in Greek-American communities all over the world. Last summer I went to a privately owned museum collection of WWII weapons and paraphernalia in Crete. There are a number of them on the island. The one I went to is near a town called Sfaka. The island of Crete was battered by the Germans. While the mainland surrendered, Crete continued to fight. The museum is in a section of this man’s home. His sister was killed in a bombing by the Nazis and he spent his life collecting WWII related items as a way to honor his sister. During the German occupation of Greece, there are countless stories of attacks on civilians. Nazi soldiers going to remote villages and massacring not only men but even women and children. Like the other countries Hitler and the Nazis invaded and conquered, the Jewish population of Greece while much smaller than other European countries were transported to killing centers like Auschwitz. By the end of the war, 80% of the prewar Jewish population of Greece had been murdered. People are still finding relics from WWII in Crete.
Hitler then turns his eyes to the east and attacks the Soviet Union. Makes this a two front war for the Germans. On June 22, 1941 Germany invaded the Soviet Union. It was codenamed Operation Barbarossa. The Eastern front was massive at 1,800 miles long. The German’s used 80% of its armed forces known as the Weirmacht. They quickly seized control over territories like Kiev & Ukraine. Ukraine in particular was of great importance due to its food production capabilities and how rich in minerals it was. Ukraine’s territory is still coveted for those same two reasons. By October of 1941, they attacked Moscow which held both strategic and political importance but the Soviet Army had been able to build up their defenses and German gains were not as quick. By December the Soviets mounted a surprise counterattack and the Germans were forced to retreat. The retreat wouldn’t last long. Hitler ordered another offensive, this time in Stalingrad which was an industrial city as well as a transportation hub being located near the Volga river. They hoped to be able to cut off access to lend-lease supplies being brought in. This battle was particularly bloody. It’s a great example of urban warfare. It was by far, one of the bloodiest battles in WWII and is considered a major turning point in the European theater. The city was destroyed. 1,000 pounds of bombs were dropped in 48 hours. There is not an exact account of how many civilians were killed in this battle but the estimates are extremely high. Thousands of civilians were taken back to Germany for slave labor. Fighting raged for months. Unsanitary conditions, lack of supplies and the Soviet winter all made the German army’s ability to advance that much harder. The Soviets declared victory and almost 100,000 soldiers were taken as prisoners of war. Within that number were a number of Nazi Generals. Estimates show that over 1 million soviet soldiers were killed and 40,000 civilians. During the war, the civilian casualties in the Soviet Union were astounding. If you look at the Battle of Leningrad for example, there are 800,000 civilian deaths, mostly from hunger. The Soviets evacuated 1.6 million civilians from the city and if they hadn’t, that number would be much higher. The city had been totally cut off from necessary supplies and electricity. Total casualties throughout WWII both military and civilian was 27 million people. The impact that this war had on the human population is mind boggling.
In the start of WWII there were Leadership changes in Britain – Neville Chamberlain and then Winston Churchill became Prime Minister. Chamberlain became Prime Minister of Great Britain in 1937. It was his decision to pledge to protect Poland should Germany invade (which they did in 1939). Chamberlain was criticized for his handling of the war by both major parties in England as well as for his policy of Appeasement. Winston Churchill succeeded him as Prime Minister.
US Policy of Neutrality
Over 100,000 US soldiers were killed in WWI. That’s a small amount compared to the casualties suffered by Britain & France but keep in mind, the US only got involved in 1917. After the Great War ended, the US once again turned to a policy of Isolation. We did not want to get involved in another foreign conflict. As war raged on in Europe and throughout many other places throughout the world, it became increasingly more difficult not to take steps to mobilize so that the country would be prepared for war if need be but to also provide our allies with the means of war so that WE wouldn’t need to use them to fight the Germans. Prior to the outbreak of war in Europe and after the rise of a variety of totalitarian regimes in Europe, the US passed a neutrality act in 1935. This law hoped “to avoid any action that might bring the US into war”. Some things that would be necessary under the new law was that American vessels had to obtain a license to carry arms, would restrict Americans from sailing on ships from hostile nations and would impose an embargo on the sale of arms to “belligerent” nations. Another Neutrality Act followed in 1937. As the situation in Europe became worse it was evident that the US needed to aid our allies in its fight against the Nazis. We instituted a policy known as Cash and Carry.
Cash & Carry was instituted in late Sept of 1939 as a response to the outbreak of WWII. It replaced the Neutrality Act of 1937. The Neutrality Acts were passed as a way to prevent the US from being pulled into another world war. The thinking was that if we have trade with a country that’s at war – if we provide loans – we will need to protect our investment – if that country ceases to exist – we don’t get that money back or get paid for the war items. If those items were paid for in cash, in full and the country in question assumed all of the risk by transporting those goods on their ships; that would be a different story. This became the policy of the US until it became impossible for allies like Great Britain to pay in cash in full for what they needed.
In March of 1941, Lend- Lease Act went into effect. The program was introduced to Congress as An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States. Under this policy we supplied our Allies like Great Britain, the Soviet Union, France, & China, with food, oil, and war materials until 1945. The policy had support because it was deemed essential for the defense of the United States. Provide the war materials so that our soldiers wouldn’t need to use them to fight the Nazis. This would all change in less than a year when Japan attacked the US at Pearl Harbor in Dec of 1941.
In total about 50 billion worth of supplies was sent to our Allies. The items sent were to be used until returned or destroyed. Most equipment was destroyed, although some materials such as ships were returned after the war. Some were sold at a lower rate after the end of the war. The US would not be able to avoid direct involvement. The fight would be brought to us on the shores of Pearl Harbor.
