Jewish immigrants arrived as early as the 1600s and lived in what was once known as New Amsterdam. The majority of the Jewish population living in the US were primarily Sephardic Jews from places like Spain, Portugal, Brazil, Amsterdam & England. At the height of immigration to the United States, between 1880-1920, it is estimated that about 3 million Jewish immigrants from Europe entered the United States.
Many had fled Europe to escape the Pograms. The term Pogrom is a Russian word and it means to wreak havoc or to destroy violently. It is used to describe the violent attacks against Jews living within the Russian Empire. Jewish people were raped and murdered. Their homes and businesses were looted. businesses were looted.
President Roosevelt called for an international conference on the refugee crisis. Delegates from 32 countries gathered in Evian, France, in July 1938, but most countries refused to change their laws to assist Jewish refugees.
In the 1920s, the US passed new immigration legislation that created a quota system. Only a certain number of immigrants would be allowed into the US. After 1938, only 27,370 people born in Germany and Austria could be granted visas to immigrate to the United States each year. In most years, the US government issued far fewer visas than the maximum allowed. The only exception made was that this group wasn’t required to have to take a literacy test. Immigrants who were likely to become a public charge or dependent on the state, were banned. The country is in the midst of the Great Depression. There is a want and even a need – not to add to the unemployment rate. This notion that we already have enough people who are without.
In the 1930s, the world witnessed a rapid and alarming rise of totalitarian dictators. This period marked a significant turning point in global history, as the actions and ideologies of these dictators had far-reaching consequences that would shape the course of the 20th century and beyond. In the 1930s, economic crises, political turmoil, and social unrest set the stage for the rise of totalitarianism. The Great Depression sent shockwaves throughout the global economy, leaving millions unemployed and destitute. People were desperate for solutions and looked to leaders who promised stability and a way out of the chaos.
In Europe, the aftermath of World War I had left deep scars on the continent. The harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which blamed Germany for the war and imposed heavy reparations, bred resentment and a desire for revenge. This fertile ground of discontent allowed dictators like Adolf Hitler in Germany, Benito Mussolini in Italy and Francisco Franco in Spain to rise to power, capitalizing on nationalist sentiment and promising a return to glory. It also set off a chain of events that would once again start a world war and lead to a genocide against the Jewish people of Europe. Today we are going to discuss what the response to the rise of Hitler, Mussolini and Franco was in the United States.
Adolf Hitler, the leader of Nazi Germany, capitalized on Germany's economic turmoil and grievances from World War I to propel himself into power. Through his powerful rhetoric and promises of restoring Germany's greatness, Hitler tapped into the fears and desires of the German people, garnering their support and loyalty.
US Response to the rise of Hitler. Hitler came to power in Germany in 1933. At first, many US journalists described Hitler as almost a caricature. He was known for his loud boisterous speeches and the press likened him to Charlie Chaplin for their similar facial hair. The original thought was that when he rose to power he might become more moderate or that other prominent German politicians would seize power instead. Neither of those things happened. It is no secret his hatred for the Jewish people. The United States and really the world underestimated him and just how much a beaten down Germany would go along with his policies. The American press did write stories detailing new anti-semitic policies and pictures of the aftermath of events like Kristallnachct and people were angered, motivated to march, boycott German businesses, write to elected officials, use their own funds to bring over Jewish families from Germany and its acquired territories. But the articles didn’t cause the uproar they should have. Anti-Semitism was alive and well in the United States and the country was in the throes of The Great Depression. In Mein Kampf, Hitler writes out his goals as clear as day. Newspapers quoted Nazi officials as saying that “Jews who get out early would be wise”. American journalists in Germany are reporting on the events and Nazi policies targeting Jews and other groups labeled as being undesirable. Articles on the boycott of Jewish owned businesses, book burnings, the banning of Jewish people from certain industries. This is all in the news, there are pictures. American diplomats are reporting on these events to government officials. There are some protests within the US, but not much.
The 1936 Olympic games were held in Berlin. There were some calls to boycott the games. The US as well as some other western democracies began to question the morality of sending dignitaries and athletes to the games being hosted by the Nazi regime. Olympic officials even considered moving the 1936 games from Berlin but when Olympic officials were given tours of the accommodations and were shown that Jewish athletes were being treated fairly, the games remained in Berlin. Ultimately, the US representatives and athletes did attend the games. Many Jewish athletes from around the world did choose to boycott the Berlin Olympics and chose not to attend. The 1936 Berlin games were a huge success for Hitler & Germany. During the games anti-Semitic posters and signs were removed. The hope was for Germany to dazzle foreign dignitaries. The 1936 Olympic games was a huge public relations success for Nazi Germany.
Diplomatically, the official recommendation from the State Dept and Roosevelt Administration was to maintain cordial relations with the German government but to have the US Ambassador to Germany do what he could unofficially to protest the Nazi policies towards the Jews of Europe. Over time it became clear to Ambassador William Dodd that the Nazis were an increasing threat and he resigned over not being able to persuade the Roosevelt Administration and the State Dept to step in and do something before the US got involved in WWII.
It is also important to note that American companies had a big interest in Germany as they had significant investments. We are talking about companies like IBM and Coca Cola. These investments didn’t decrease after Hitler came to power, in fact, they increased. IBM for example did significant business with Hitler and the Nazi party. Their technology was instrumental in allowing the Nazis to keep records and get the information they wanted and needed. IBM technology allowed for information for census data, military logistics, Jewish ghetto statistics, train traffic managements and even concentration camp statistics including capacity. The census in Germany was instrumental in identifying the ethnic background of individuals living in Germany territories which of course would continue to expand. The IBM punch card and card sorting system was a precursor to the computer. According to a NY Times article by Edwin Black, more than 2,000 multi-machine sets were dispatched throughout Germany, and thousands more throughout German-dominated Europe. Card sorting operations were established in every major concentration camp. People were moved from place to place, systematically worked to death, and their remains cataloged with icy automation. IBM Germany designed the complex devices and specialized applications. Many in their top management were comprised of Nazi supporters who were arrested after the war for their Party affiliation. Lawsuits were brought against IBM for the part the company played whether knowingly or unknowingly – lawsuits as recent as 2001. These lawsuits were eventually dropped – one because it was feared that ongoing litigation would slow down payments to Holocaust survivors but also because there was no known proof that IBM officials sold their machines to their German counterparts knowing what they would be used for. IBM’s German division paid $3 Million dollars into the German fund for Holocaust survivors. It is also important to note that this was done without any admission of guilt.
In the years before WWII began, coca cola like many American companies was working to create an empire overseas. One country coca cola was successful in creating a European market was Germany. Huge amounts of the popular drink had been shipped to the 1936 Berlin Olympics. When a rival German soda company saw coca cola caps with Hebrew writing on them (to show it was kosher) they tried to persuade German officials that Coke was a Jewish owned company. German Businessman, Max Keith, sent Coca Cola employees to Nazi rallies so as to align the brand with Nazi party supporters. Eventually when the US got involved in the war and the syrup to make coca cola couldn’t be sent to Germany – Max Keith created a new company which made soda. That company is, of course Fanta.
There are other companies that worked with the Nazis – Hugo Boss – a member of the Nazi party himself. His company made uniforms for the nazi regime and in their factories were people sent from concentration camps to work as slave labor. More companies than most people would realize did business with Nazi controlled Germany.
US Response to Mussolini
Benito Mussolini, the Italian fascist dictator, took advantage of a similar discontent in Italy. Mussolini capitalized on the economic hardships and the nationalistic sentiment stemming from the Treaty of Versailles, positioning himself as the savior of Italy. His use of paramilitary squads and the exploitation of fascist propaganda allowed him to consolidate his power and silence dissent. In Italy, Mussolini's fascist rule meant the suppression of political opposition, strict censorship, and the indoctrination of Italian youth through propaganda. Dissent was met with harsh punishment, and those who spoke out against the government risked imprisonment or even execution.
Mussolini, known as Il Duce, following a 1922 March on Rome and a mass demonstration of Fascist troops that led Italy’s king to appoint Mussolini as prime minister. By 1925, he declared himself Leader for Life. Even though Mussolini had fierce American critics, he also had his supporters. This changed after Mussolini invaded Ethiopia and when Hitler rose to power in Germany. At first, many in the American press dubbed Mussolini a movie star and spoke of his charisma.
US Response to Francisco Franco
The conflict in Spain is known as The Spanish Civil War but within the conflict you don’t just have Spaniards fighting Spaniards. It is very much an international conflict with money, weapons and fighters coming into Spain from a variety of countries. It begins in 1936 and the fighting lasts 3 years. Hitler and Mussolini side with the Generals, The Soviet Union gives support to the Loyalists.
When the Spanish Civil War began in 1936, US Secretary of State Cordell Hull followed American neutrality laws and moved quickly to ban arms sales to both sides. The United States also didn’t get involved in any mediation attempts. The US did send nonmilitary items. President Roosevelt privately supported the Republicans and worried a Nationalist victory would allow for a greater German influence in Latin America for decades: Latin America was seen as our backyard, or neighborhood if you will and we wanted to prevent European interference in this region. The Republicans spent almost $1 million a month on tires, cars, and machine tools from American companies between 1937 and 1938. Some American businesses supported Franco. The automakers Ford, Studebaker, and General Motors sold a total of 12,000 trucks to the Nationalists.
The United States’ unwillingness to choose a side didn’t stop American citizens from traveling to Spain to fight. 2,800 Americans fought in the Spanish Civil War. Some fought in what would become known as The Abraham Lincoln brigade. Named after the US President who led the United States during its own Civil War. Both Hitler and Mussolini gave Franco help during the war in spain. When the Spanish Civil War ended General Franco was in power and remained so until his death in 1975. Spain didn’t get involved in WWII and remained neutral. During the civil war and in the years that followed thousands of Spaniards were killed and all opposition was squashed.
Unlike Hitler and Mussolini – Franco’s regime survived WWII. In the post WWII Franco’s Spain joined the United Nations and during the Cold War era it made more sense to have an alliance with Spain as opposed to them looking to the Soviets for aid. The drive to have access to military bases on Spanish soil was another motivating factor.
During Franklin D. Roosevelt's presidency, totalitarianism posed a significant threat on the global stage. Understanding the context of totalitarianism during this time is crucial to appreciating FDR's actions. Totalitarian regimes, such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin, were on the rise, seeking to expand their influence and suppress individual freedoms. FDR recognized the dangers posed by these regimes and understood that inaction would only allow them to grow stronger.
In the global context, FDR witnessed the devastating impact of totalitarianism firsthand. He witnessed the aggressive expansionism of Nazi Germany and the horrors of the Holocaust. He saw how Stalin's Soviet Union imposed its will on Eastern Europe, spreading communism and stifling democracy. FDR understood that if the United States wanted to protect its own freedom and democracy, it had to take a stand against totalitarianism.
Neutrality act of 1935 – banned the exportation of arms to any foreign nation at war.
Neutrality Act of 1937-allowed the President to make distinctions between countries at war. The US allowed some countries to purchase nonmilitary products. In 1939, this law was amended to allow the sales of arms.
In the United States, the Kristallnacht attacks were front-page news nationwide for several weeks. At his November 15 press conference, President Franklin D. Roosevelt said that the attack had “deeply shocked” the American public and announced that he was ordering the US ambassador in Germany to return home. The United States was the only nation to take this diplomatic action, and it would not have an ambassador in Germany again until after World War II ended in 1945. (facing history) According to a 1938 poll, 94% disagreed with allowing a larger number of Jewish immigrants from Germany into the US.
10-11 year waiting list for visas for European Jews looking to escape Europe. In some countries, like Romania, the wait list was 43 years as less than 400 immigrants would be allowed in yearly. Antisemitism wasn’t just in Europe. It was in the United States and all over the world. You have people aware of the horrible atrocities happening to the Jewish population in Europe. In many cases, like Kristallnacht its front page news. How do you get people to keep caring about something? You have the atrocities of the Spanish civil war, specifically the bloody battle of Guernica. You have proof of Germany’s war machine, you have stories of what Mussolini is doing in Italy. People do not want another war. They are reeling from the Great war, they are trying to survive the economic depression that we now know as The Great Depression and policies of appeasement are a better choice than potentially another war. No one could see what would unfold in a few short years. The United States is experiencing the worst financial crises it has ever experienced, and once again adopts a policy of neutrality. When FDR is elected President he sees the potential for war. He hopes our country, our soldiers can avoid it but begins to make preparations so that if that day comes we will be ready. We begin to institute policies to supply our allies with the means of war in the hopes that our soldiers may not need to use them.
