The Truman Doctrine emerged as a defining policy of the United States during the early stages of the Cold War. Announced by President Harry S. Truman in 1947, this doctrine aimed to counter Soviet geopolitical expansion and was a response to the perceived threat of communism spreading to other parts of the world. It represented a significant shift in American foreign policy, marking a commitment to supporting nations that resisted Communism. The United States typically tried to avoid involving itself in foreign conflicts. Now, the United States Government was willing to involve itself in foreign affairs if it meant being able to prevent the spread of Communism. Essentially, the Truman Doctrine laid the groundwork for the policy of containment, which sought to limit the influence and spread of communism worldwide.
The immediate context for the announcement of the Truman Doctrine was The political turmoil in Greece and Turkey led to Truman’s promise of support. Both nations were facing severe political and economic instability, and there were concerns that they could fall under Soviet influence. A civil war began in Greece in 1944. As German soldiers began to leave Greece, Communist forces began to seize control over areas of Greece. British soldiers fought off Communist forces within Greece but in 1947, were no longer willing to continue to foot the bill.
The British government, which had been providing support to these countries, informed the United States that it could no longer sustain its assistance due to its own post-war financial difficulties. In this critical moment, Truman addressed Congress, emphasizing the need for the United States to step in and provide the necessary support to these nations.
The Truman Doctrine is often seen as the start of the Cold War era's foreign policy, signaling a departure from America's traditional isolationist policies. The US would provide political, military and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces. The doctrine justified American intervention in international conflicts where communist forces seemed to be gaining ground. While the Truman Doctrine was successful in stopping the spread of Communism to Greece, it didn’t put an end to the political turmoil within the country.
When WWII ended, Turkey was being pressured by the Soviets to allow Soviet ships to use the Turkish Straits. This connected the Black Sea to the Mediterranean. Economic aid in the form of 100 million dollars was given to Turkey as well as the US Aircraft carrier the USS Franklin Roosevelt to ensure that Turkey would remain in control of the strait. During WWII, Turkey had mostly been neutral. Turkey along with a number of other Balkan countries declared its neutrality after Germany invaded France. Turkey remained neutral until it declared war on Germany in February of 1945. The country didn’t participate in any battles. Both German officials and Western Allies had been courting Turkey trying to persuade them to support their cause and the Allies bought as much Turkish Chromite as they could so that they could lessen how much of it the Nazis could acquire. Nazi Germany, in exchange for chromite, entered into a nonaggression pact with Turkey in the early years of the war. Turkey was newly independent after the fall of the Ottoman Empire after WWI and while they had a large army, it was antiquated and no match for the German or Soviet armies. When WWII ended, Turkey was suffering from high inflation and for the most part was diplomatically isolated. While Turkey had eventually chosen sides and declared War on Germany in February of 1945, it was done more so to secure a seat at the conference that was going to be held in San Francisco for the creation of The United Nations. Turkey very much wanted a seat at the table for the new world order that the UN would bring. Soviet envoys to Turkey only had to use Poland as an example of what could befall Turkey, if they didn’t agree to their demands. Truman doctrine funding and the support of the US Navy allowed Turkey to avoid the same fate as Eastern Europe. The soviets backed off, Turkey and The United States were able to protect the Black sea from soviet expansion which had they been successful, many scholars argue that the Soviets would have attempted to gain access to The Suez Canal.
Now, let’s discuss The Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan, officially known as the European Recovery Program, was introduced as a complement to the Truman Doctrine. Its purpose was to provide substantial economic aid to rebuild war-torn European nations, thereby preventing the spread of communism.
By revitalizing the European economy, the Marshall Plan not only facilitated recovery but also promoted political stability. It encouraged the adoption of free-market systems and aimed to strengthen alliances with Western European countries.
The concept of the Marshall Plan was announced during a June 1947 speech at Harvard by Secretary of State George C. Marshall. Marshall called for a comprehensive program to rebuild war ravaged Eastern Europe. While most commencement speakers hope to say something that will resonate with the graduating class. This speech resonated beyond that audience and made a lasting impact for generations of people around the world.
George C. Marshall attended the Virginia Military Institute and served in France during WWI. After WWI, he became an aid to General Pershing and in 1927 he became assistant commandant of the Army’s Infantry school where he helped to modernize procedures which would be incredibly valuable during WWII. In 1939, he became the Chief of Staff of the Army; a position he held until the war was over in 1945. He was made a 5-star General and was named Time Magazine’s Man of the year in both 1943 and 1947. He was given the position of Special Envoy to China in hopes that he could help secure peace between the Communists and Nationalists in China. In 1947, Truman chose him for Secretary of State.
After WWII ended Sec of State Marshall travelled to France, Berlin and Moscow in the hopes of securing a treaty with Germany and Austria by reaching an agreement with Stalin. The trip with mostly political goals also had far reaching humanitarian impacts. Marshall returned home to the United States with a first-hand account in the necessity of rebuilding Europe, providing aid for farmers, and ensuring the future prosperity of Western Europe. He also saw Stalin’s lack of regard in these areas and feared that he wanted Western Europe to crumble so that he could further advance across the continent.
When the plan was first introduced, the U.S. was open to the possibility of offering aid to The Soviet Union and Eastern European countries. Stalin was fearful of allowing the U.S. to have a direct impact of its Soviet satellite states and the Western influence that would inevitably infiltrate his territory. The Legislative branch’s willingness to fund programs that would be given to communist countries also seemed unlikely so that was scrapped.
WWII proved that cooperation between the U.S. and Western Europe was essential to the success of the U.S. even senators who had once been staunch isolationists supported the bill. The situation in Western Europe was dire. Cities were shells of what they once were, the economy was in ruins, food supply in some places were pretty much nonexistent, cities that were once cultural centers were now on the brink of famine. If the U.S. wanted to be able to trade goods, it would need markets who were cable of buying their products. There were some who felt a second Great Depression was looming.
Not all countries who received Marshall Plan funding received it equally. Countries that fought on the side of the Axis powers like Italy or countries who had remained neutral like Switzerland, received less money (even if they were in need of more). The one exception to that was West Germany.
There were two agencies that helped to administer Marshall Plan funds – one in the US and one in Europe. In the US, The Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA). The ECA reported to both The Department of Commerce and The State Department. Over the next 4 years, 13 Billion dollars was invested in over 16 countries in form of economic aid, restore both industrial and agricultural production in those countries and to expand trade. The 16 countries that signed up for aid were Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey and the United Kingdom. Each European capital had an ECA envoy, generally a prominent American businessman who would advise on the process.
The agency in Europe was known as the Organization for European Economic Cooperation. This organization was created to fulfill the obligations that the European countries receiving aid work together. The agency helped ensure that participants fulfilled their joint obligations to adopt policies encouraging trade and increased production.
Why would the United States be willing to spend so much money to help Western Europe? There are a number of factors. Kindness of heart wasn’t at the top of the list. Overproduction of goods would be a threat to US prosperity in the post WWII years. We need new markets for our goods and if these countries are in economic shambles, they can’t buy our goods. Politically, the motivation is to prevent the spread of communism. In places with high poverty and hunger, Communist beliefs are appealing. We don’t want any more countries falling to Communism and we don’t want the power and influence of The Soviet Union to grow. Countries had to match these U.S. grants with their own currency, which was allocated for infrastructure projects like roads, power plants, housing, and even airports. All projects had to be approved by The ECA. The Marshall Plan also allowed for technical training. Over 6,000 Europeans came to the US to study methods of increasing productivity. There isn’t just the exchange of money but the exchange of knowledge. The notion of not just giving a man a fish but teaching that same man how to fish so they can continue to feed themselves once the aid package stops. I hope it goes without saying that a significant amount of Marshall Plan funds was used to purchase goods from US Suppliers. The US also wanted these European nations to buy American oil and replace the coal they had used. Many of these countries wanted to use Marshall Plan funds to build their own refineries so they could refine their own oil and buy crude. Projects to build refineries were denied access to Marshall Plan funds.
John C. Marshall received a Nobel Peace Prize for his work. The only General in history to receive the award. When the news of his being awarded this prestigious honor was announced he humbly told the press waiting outside of his North Carolina home that the award was a tribute to the American people. In his acceptance speech, Marshall addressed the controversy of giving the award to a former soldier and general. He stated “The cost of war in human lives is constantly spread before me, written neatly in many ledgers whose columns are gravestones. I am deeply moved to find some means of avoiding another calamity of war.”
These policies also spurred closer cooperation among Western nations, fostering alliances and collaborative efforts that extended beyond immediate post-war recovery. Institutions like NATO emerged, embodying the collective security and political unity that the U.S. aimed to achieve through its foreign policy initiatives. The legacy of these policies is evident in the continued emphasis on promoting democracy and economic stability as pillars of American foreign policy.
The long-term effects of the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan are profound, influencing international relations well beyond the post-war years. These policies solidified the United States' role as a global promoter of democracy and economic cooperation, laying the groundwork for a new era of international engagement. This legacy is evident in various U.S. initiatives aimed at promoting economic development and political stability in regions facing similar challenges.
